Let's celebrate the Anglo-Saxons...............
Anglo-Saxon Remains
The Lindisfarne Gospels, now in the British Library in London, are a superb example of illuminated manuscript from the Dark Ages (proving that the Dark Ages weren't pitch black). The Gospels were created around 700 A.D. by Eadfrith, bishop of Lindisfarne monastery on Holy Island (Northumberland).
As the story goes the monks took to the sea to escape from a Danish raids in the late 9th century. The Gospels, in a jewelled container, were lost overboard in a storm. Then a vision of St. Cuthbert appeared to one of the monks, telling him where to find the precious book. Sure enough, when the monks searched the shore at the spot indicated by the saint, the Gospels were found, intact but for a small sea water stain which can still be seen.
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The Alfred Jewel, kept in the Ashmolean Museum in Oxford, is another Dark Ages treasure. A small ornament of gold, crystal, and enamel, it was made to fit on the end of a staff or rod. Its association with King Alfred evolves from the inscription "Alfred had me made" around the rim of the jewel. The attractive idea that it was actually owned by Alfred the Great is enhanced by the fact that it was found near his sanctuary at Athelney.
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At Sutton Hoo (Suffolk) a Saxon ship burial from the early 7th century was excavated in 1939. The haul, in archaeological terms, was staggering. Inside the hull of a wooden ship buried beneath an oval mound were the war gear and treasures of a Saxon leader, perhaps a "bretwalda" or king of Suffolk. Curiously, no skeleton was found, and there is some debate over whether the "grave" ever contained a body. It did contain a wealth of gold and silver goods, however, of such fine workmanship as to dispel any notion that the Anglo-Saxons were nothing but crude barbarians. Included were a sword with gold and garnet fittings, drinking horns mounted in silver, and a heavy gold buckle or reliquary. These and much more are resident in the British Museum in London.
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Anglo-Saxon Place Names. And to polish off this eccentric collection of Anglo-Saxon remains, here's something you can have some fun with: place names. The Anglo-Saxon and Danish settlers had an immense impact on what we now call the English language. Some of their most enduring remains are to be found in the place names that dot modern maps. Suffixes and prefixes often describe the history of a village. Here are a few examples to get you started:
-ing (place of the people of; e.g. Hastings = place of Haesta's folk).
-port (town with a market, not necessarily on the coast; e.g. Southport)
-ney (island; e.g. Alderney, a British island in the English Channel)
-bury (from burh, later borough, a walled town with the right to hold a market and possibly to mint coins. Many were purpose-built regional defense centres; e.g. Canterbury)
These are just a few of many examples. By the way, there are no prizes for figuring out the origin of the name "Oxford".
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English Parish Churches
There are few sights that evoke "Englishness" more than that of a slumbering parish church. Cathedrals in England span only about 400 years of English history and cultural influence (with the exception of a very few modern cathedra, which don't evoke much of anything).
Anglo-Saxon church, Sompting, Sussex
Parish churches, on the other hand, tell the tale of some 1300 years of English history and social change. The humble parish church is an integral part of English social life and culture.
The oldest surviving parish churches in England date to about 670 AD (Brixworth and Escombe). At that time 3 distinct classes of churches were built; "cathedral" churches, "collegiate" churches, and local churches/private chapels built by individual Anglo-Saxon thegns (lords).
Cathedral churches were not cathedrals in the modern sense, but "mother churches" from which the first missionary priests went out to preach Christianity to the pagan inhabitants in a particular region.
Collegiate churches, also known as "old minsters" were daughter houses of the cathedral churches; a sort of second level regional missionary church.
Churches, or chapels (only later called "parish churches"), were generally private foundations, established by thegns, bishops, lay societies, or even an association of parishioners.
The first parish churches were not built by the church, but by local lords. They were essentially owned and operated by that lord.
Churches were often located on pre-Christian sites of spiritual significance, taking advantage of people's existing devotion to a particular place. Worship was carried on in the same place, just with a Christian orientation. Speaking of orientation, churches are nearly always oriented so that the main altar is at the east end of the church, facing Jerusalem, and, not coincidentally, the rising sun. Even if the altar end of the church is not literally in the east, it is called the "east end". In theory at least, the east end of an English parish church could face west!
The origin of the English parish is murky. The term originally meant an administrative district. When the term "parish" was first applied to the church, it meant the territory of a bishop, what we would today call a diocese.
It is speculated by historians that parish boundaries were originally those of Saxon manors. The extent to which the church parish and the local lord's authority overlapped is apparent when you consider that before the Norman invasion one of the accepted ways of becoming a thegn was to build a church, especially one with a tower (the tower was a defensive measure against the threat of Danish invaders).
The thegn could install a priest of his own choosing, change the priest at will, even dismantle the church if he saw fit!
The chancel of the church was the domain of the priest, and the nave "belonged" to the parishioners. Each was responsible for the upkeep of their domain. This helps explain the curious architecture of some early parish churches, particularly in Norfolk and Suffolk, where the chancel is built of carefully squared stone, and the nave of much cheaper flint.
The basic architectural characteristics of the Saxon parish churches are: rectangular east end, side entrance (usually on the south side), and a west tower.
The distinction between chancel and nave led to the development of rood screens to mark the division between the domain of the priest and that of his parishioners. These screens, usually of wood, but sometimes of stone, became extremely elaborate. Many were destroyed under the Reformation and the later Puritan influence. Only a few of the early screens remain, as at Stanton Harcourt (Oxon), and Bramfield (Suffolk).
One point to remember is that there was no seating in churches at that time. People attending a service stood in the nave. Luckily, it was not until much later that long sermons became popular (see below), so the parishioners did not have to suffer long!
Plan of Boarhunt (Hampshire) Saxon church
The floor plan of southern Anglo-Saxon churches was based on the traditional Roman basilica, with an eastern apse, no transepts, western entrance, and aisles. Good examples survive at Brixworth (Northants), Wing (Bucks), and Worth (Sussex).
In the north the Celtic influence led to churches that were narrow, tall, and rectangular, with doors on the sides.
Curiously, despite the triumph of the Roman church over the Celtic one, it was the Celtic model that became the norm for parish churches in England. The Normans rebuilt many of the earlier Saxon churches, in the process destroying much of the regional differences in favour of a more unified Norman "look".
West Dean parsonage, 13th century
Early Norman churches were aisless, with a central tower, and built to a cruciform plan (i.e., they were shaped like a cross, or like a small t).
Medieval parish churches were usually plastered inside and out. Vivid picture were painted on the interior plaster to illustrate Biblical scenes for the illiterate popluation. Statuary was also richly painted. Sadly, very little of the original plastering or painting remains today, so it requires a strong imagination to picture how the churches would have looked 1,000 years ago.
Before the Great Plague of 1348-50 the growing population necessitated more space inside parish churches, so many churches added aisles at this time.
The most notable parish churches of the late medieval period are the so called "wool churches" common to the Cotswolds and East Anglia. These are churches endowed by the newly rich class of local merchants thriving on England's wool trade.
Many of these magnificent buildings, such as Thirsk (Yorkshire), Northleach (Gloucestershire), and Lavenham (Suffolk), are like mini-cathedrals, complete with fanciful carvings, elaborate ornamentation and funereal monuments inside the church.
The Tudor era saw one important change; it was under the influence of Elizabeth I that preaching long sermons became popular. And by long, I mean loonnnnng - 2 to 4 hours was not uncommon. This meant that the victims, ... er ...church attendees, needed to sit to listen, so pews became standard in the naves. The preacher needed a lectern, and more often, a pulpit. So the pulpit was added to the nave also. Most of the pulpits you see in parish churches today date from the Tudor period, or later.
The Tudor period saw the end of the great church-building era. Far fewer churches were built from this point to the present day, the most prominent (architecturally speaking) being the Classical motif of the Stuart and Georgian period, and the Gothick Revival of mid-Victorian times.
Most new parish churches were built in the ever-growing cities, where the expanding urban population necessitated new parishes. Most notable here is London, where the Great Fire of 1666 destroyed most of the medieval churches (and gave a young architect named Christopher Wren quite an opportunity to evolve a new classical style of church).
In the modern era there is more religious freedom, and with the subsequent splintering of Christian sects, and the introduction of more non-Christian religions into England there are few new parish churches built. And those that are may be interesting to their parishioners but to few others. Some of the old churches that once served prosperous villages have fallen into disuse and been abandoned as population shifted. Many of these churches are now being looked after by the Redundant Churches Fund.
Most parish churches are open to visitors. Just walk in (and dress warmly if you plan to do this a lot - they can be chilly even on the warmest days). Many churches have placards or handouts giving details of the building history and pointing out its architectural features. These small gems of living history give a much better sense of England and its culture than do the grandest cathedrals, and they're usually free. Just drop some small change in the donation box by the door.
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Anglo-Saxon Architecture
England is not blessed with an abundance of surviving Anglo-Saxon buildings. There is good reason for this scarcity; the Anglo-Saxon period was one beset by frequent warfare and violent invasions, particularly by the Vikings in the period 800-950. These invaders, quite naturally, burned and destroyed most of the settlements they came across, in their search for plunder and martial glory. For this reason most surviving examples of Anglo-Saxon architecture date from either 600-725 or 900-1050.
Anglo-Saxon church tower
Unfortunately for posterity, most Saxon buildings were constructed of wood with wattle and daub walls. The depredations of the Danes left very few of these flammable buildings standing. The only buildings the Anglo-Saxons tended to build in more permanent stone were their monasteries and churches. Here, at least, there are several good examples remaining to see today. (See our in-depth article on Anglo-Saxon churches here.)
There are two regions where the earliest Saxon work is concentrated; in the southeast around the county of Kent and in Northumbria. In Kent the best surviving churches are those of St. Peter and St. Paul, Canterbury(c. 600), and St. Peter-on-the-Wall, Bradwell (c. 660). These churches are heavily influenced by the Roman basilcan tradition, with a rounded chancel in the east and plain walls.
In Northumbria the Celtic churches at Escomb, County Durham (c. 690) and the monastic buildings at Monkwearmouth and Jarrow, Tyne and Wear (c. 675). These buildings betray their Celtic origins, with tall, aisless naves and a rectangular chancel. After the Synod of Whitby (664) swung the pendulum of power towards Roman Christian observance, the northern churches took up the basilican plan, as in the crypt at Hexham, Northumbria (674).
One other early Saxon building of note is the church at Brixworth, Northamptonshire (c.676). Interestingly, it was built re-using old Roman bricks. It is also unusual for its length; at nearly 100 feet long Brixworth is large compared to other early Saxon churches.
Surprisingly few large churches remain from the later period of Saxon building (900-1050). The larger buildings, particularly the monasteries, were generally rebuilt in the Norman period, and little Saxon work remains above ground. The smaller churches are extremely simple in layout; basically a simple nave divided from a rectangular chancel by a narrow arch. Examples include St. Lawrence, Bradford-on-Avon, and Boarhunt, Hampshire.
A common Saxon window scheme
Saxon churches are generally small in scale, showing none of the inclination towards grandeur exhibited by the later Norman builders. Doors and window openings are extremely simple, with very few decorative elements. Though some windows are low triangles (see drawing), more often they are narrow slit openings with a simple rounded top. When the openings were larger they were often supported on short pillars of plain stone or simple balusters.
The chancel and nave are small, rectangular enclosures, almost cut off from each other. This separation may have been a conscious choice, keeping the mystery of the chancel shrine apart from the riff-raff in the nave, but it is just as likely that the Anglo-Saxon building techniques would not permit a more expansive structural opening.
The Anglo-Saxon's put a lot of energy into tower building in their church architecture, and often Saxon towers are the earliest surviving part of English parish churches. The towers began as a defensive structure; they enabled inhabitants of a village to gain a high lookout point and an easily defensible position to ward off attacks. Saxon towers often had rooms high up which were reached by a ladder. The ladder could then be drawn up when danger threatened.
One characteristic of Anglo-Saxon stonework should be noted; they often used long strips of vertical stone, called "pilaster strips", in the exterior walls of their churches. Often these stones form a simple criss-cross pattern.
Norman vs Saxon stonework
At corners the Saxons frequently used alternate horizontal and vertical stones. This pattern, sometimes called "long-and-short work", is easily distinguished from the more common Norman pattern of alternating horizontal stones (see drawing).
A Saxon Cross
Another common Anglo-Saxon element, particularly in the north, is the stone cross. These crosses were often used to mark points where paths intersected, though they were later used as a gathering place for religious observance. Crosses may have been put up at sites which were already regarded as sacred in pagan worship. Later on, churches were built at the same spots, preserving a continuity of worship. Some of the finest crosses still to be seen are at Ilkley (West Yorkshire), Bewcastle, Gosforth, and Irton (Cumbria), and Bakewell (Derbyshire).
Although there are local variations in cross design, the circle cross, like that at Dearham, Cumbria, was a widely used pattern. In a circle cross the arms of a stone cross extend just to, or slightly beyond, a circle of protective stone. Similar circle crosses can be found in other places with strong Celtic traditions; in Wales and Ireland.
The patterns incised on the surface of crosses show elements of both Christian and pagan worship, from Biblical figures to elaborate scrolls of leaves and vines, as at Bewcastle.
Domestic Architecture
A typical small Saxon house
As mentioned above, most domestic structures in the Saxon period were built in wood. Even the halls of nobles were simple affairs, with a central fire and a hole in the roof to let the smoke escape. Even the largest buildings rarely had more than one floor, and one room. Even the best archaeological remains of domestic buildings from the Anglo-Saxon period offer little more than post holes to view, which indicate the size of the hall, but little more.
Buildings vary widely in size, from 10 x 12 ft to as much as 75 x 260 feet. Most are square or rectangular, though some round houses have been found. Frequently these buildings have sunken floors; a shallow pit over which a plank floor was suspended. The pit may have been used for storage, but more likely was filled with straw for winter insulation. A variation on the sunken floor design is found in towns, where the "basement" may be as deep as 9 feet, suggesting a storage or work area below a suspended floor.
Another common design was simple post framing, with heavy posts set directly into the ground, supporting the roof. The space between the posts was filled in with wattle and daub, or occasionally, planks. The floors were generally packed earth, though planks were sometimes used. Cruck framing, where two large timbers are bent together to form a peak, was also used, though this technique became much more common in the Norman period.
Roofing materials varied, with thatch being the most common, though turf and even wooden shingles were also used.
Windows were rare, but when they were used they would have been covered with thin animal skins to allow light to penetrate. Some evidence suggests that glazing was not unknown in the late Saxon period.
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Anglo-Saxon Burhs (Towns)
Alfred the Great effectively saved Anglo-Saxon England from being overwhelmed by the Danes. (see our article on Alfred here). Yet Alfred was wise enough to realise that his military successes were only temporary. A more permanent measure of protection was needed against the growing threat of the Danes.
Alfred began a policy encouraging the formation of fortified towns, or burhs, throughout his lands, such that no place in Wessex was more than 20 miles from a town. In exchange for free plots of land within the towns, settlers provided a defense force. The burhs were also encouraged to become centres of commerce and local government. These burhs were located primarily along the coast and the borders of Alfred's lands (see map).
Alfred's son Edward the Elder continued his father's policy of establishing fortified towns, and he and his sister Aethelflaed of Mercia built a new double row of burhs along the old Roman road of Watling Street, which marked the border of the Danelaw as it ran from the Mersey to Essex.
The burhs were remarkable for their time in that they used a regular grid pattern of streets - not unlike the old Roman towns. Indeed, in many cases pre-existing Roman town sites were re-used to create Saxon towns. Why re-use Roman sites? Three main reasons can be found.
First, the Roman towns were sited at key points along the old Roman network of roads. In other words, communication was a key factor in siting Saxon towns. Chester and Gloucester are two examples of towns sited at major road intersections, though they were established by Alfred's successors.
Second, the Roman towns had basic fortifications in place. Walled towns such as Portchester were already defensible. Other Roman towns had earthwork defenses that could easily be repaired and strengthened.
Third, the growth of Christianity influenced the choice of town sites. In areas where the Roman church was strongest (i.e. the south and east), a conscious choice was made to establish sees in metropolitan centres. Contrast this with the Celtic church, which concentrated its efforts on evangelizing in the the countryside.
Other Saxon burhs were established on entirely new sites. In this class of burh we find Wallingford, Wareham, and Wilton, among others. Some, such as Lewes, Lyng, and Lydford, were built on promontories of land, with a simple ditch and bank combination adding to the natural defenses.
In cases where Roman towns were reused to create burhs the Saxons did not necessarily follow the Roman street pattern. Although frequently the main street was reused, as at Chichester and Winchester, the Saxons often built their houses upon the firm foundations of the Roman street, with the new streets running alongside.
Of the burhs that have survived as modern towns, little remains to be seen of the Saxon settlements. In some cases the modern streets follow the Saxon street plan, as at Winchester, Cricklade, Chichester, and Wallingford. Remnants of the defensive ditch and bank can be seen at Wallingford, Wareham, Maaldon, Witham, and Cricklade.
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Anglo-Saxon monarchs
Before the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms were unified by King Alfred - the father of England - to form England they each had their own monarch.
The Anglo-Saxons kingdoms
Rulers: Kent
*Hengest, legendary founder of Kent (*455-88)
*Æsc, legendary ruler of Kent (*488-512)
Irminric, king of Kent ([by c.575] - 581x588)
Æthelberht I, king of Kent (581x588 - 24 February 616) [received Augustine]
Eadbald, king of Kent (616 - 20 January 640)
Earconberht, king of Kent (640 - 14 July 664)
Ecgberht I, king of Kent (664 - 4 July 673)
Hlothhere, king of Kent (673 - 6 February 685 [from wounds in battle with Eadric])
Eadric, king of Kent (685-6)
Wihtred, king of Kent (690 - 23 April 725 [Kent splits into two kingdoms])
Eadberht I, king of half Kent (725-48)
Eardwulf, king of half Kent (748 - [before 762])
Sigered, king of half Kent ([before 762] - 764 [Offa])
Æthelberht II, king of half Kent (725-62)
Eadberht II, king of half Kent (762 - 764 [Offa])
Ecgberht II, king of Kent (776 [regains independence from Offa] - 779x784)
Ealhmund, king of Kent (779x784 - 785 [Offa regains control])
Eadberht Præn, king of Kent (796 [Offa's death] - 798 [captured])
Cuthred of Mercia, subking of Kent from brother Coenwulf (798-807)
Bealdred (of Mercia?), ruler of Kent, perhaps as subking for Beornred (823 - 825 [Kent submits to Æthelwulf of Wessex])
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Rulers: Mercia
Cearl, king of Mercia in early seventh century
Penda, king of Mercia (626 - 15 November 655 [Battle of Winwæd])
Wulfhere, king of Mercia (658-75)
Æthelred, king of Mercia (675 - 704 [resigned, became a monk])
Coenred, king of Mercia (704-9 [resigned, went to Rome])
Ceolred, king of Mercia (709-16)
Æthelbald, king of Mercia (716-57)
Beornred, king of Mercia (757)
Offa, king of Mercia (757 - 29 July 796)
Ecgfrith, king of Mercia (796 - 17 December 796)
Coenwulf, king of Mercia (796 - 821)
Ceolwulf I, king of Mercia (821-3)
Beornwulf, king of Mercia (823-5)
Ludeca, king of Mercia (825-7)
Wiglaf, king of Mercia (827-9 [defeated by Ecgberht of Wessex], 830-40)
Beorhtwulf, king of Mercia (840-52)
Burgred, king of Mercia (852-74)
Ceolwulf II, king of Mercia (874-877/9? [defeated by Vikings])
Ealdorman Æthelred, leader of Mercia, under Alfred the Great by 883 (879x883-911)
Lady Æthelflæd, daughter of Alfred, husband of Æthelred, led Mercia under Alfred (911-8)
Ælfwynn, daughter of Æthelred and Æthelflæd, deprived of authority and taken into Wessex 918
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Rulers: Northumbria
*Soemel, legendary founder of Deira, great-great-great-grandfather of Ælle
Ælle, king of Deira, ruling in 597, perhaps 30-year reign?
Æthelric, king of Deira for five years after Ælle [then Æthelfrith of Bernicia took over]
*Oessa, legendary first settler of Bernicia, grandfather of Ida
Ida, king of Bernicia (547-59)
Glappa, king of Bernicia (559-60)
Adda, king of Bernicia (560-8)
Æthelric, king of Bernicia (568-72)
Theodric, king of Bernicia (572-9)
Frithuwald, king of Bernicia (579-85)
Hussa, king of Bernicia (585-92)
Æthelfrith, king of Bernicia (592-616), also conquered Deira
Edwin, king of Deira (616 - 12 October 633 [Battle of Hatfield]), also conquered Bernicia [conversion sparrow-speech]
Osric, king of Deira (633-4 [killed by Cadwallon])
Eanfrith, king of Bernicia (633-4 [killed by Cadwallon])
Oswald, king of Bernicia (634 - 5 August 642 [Battle of Maserfelth]), also took Deira
Oswine, king of Deira (642 - 20 August 651 [killed on Oswiu's orders])
Oswiu, king of Bernicia (642 - 15 February 670), took Deira in 651
Oethelwald, perhaps subking of Deira under Oswiu
Alhfrith, perhaps subking of Deira under Oswiu
Ecgfrith, perhaps subking of Deira under Oswiu
Ecgfrith, king of Northumbria (670 - 20 May 685 [Battle of Nechtansmere])
Aldfrith, king of Northumbria (686 - 14 December 705)
Eadwulf, king of Northumbria for 2 months in 705-6?
Osred I, king of Northumbria (706-16)
Coenred, king of Northumbria (716-8)
Osric, king of Northumbria (718 - 9 May 729)
Ceolwulf, king of Northumbria (729 - 737 [retired to Lindisfarne]), dedicatee of Bede's Ecclesiastical History
Eadberht, king of Northumbria (737 - 758 [resigned, became a monk])
Oswulf, king of Northumbria (758 - 24/25 July 759 [treacherously killed by his men])
Æthelwald Moll, king of Northumbria (5 August 759 - 30 October 765 [driven out])
Alhred, king of Northumbria (765 - 774 [exiled])
Æthelred I, king of Northumbria (774 - 778/9 [exiled], 790 - 18 April 796)
Ælfwald I, king of Northumbria (778/9 - 23 September 788 [killed by treacherous Sicga])
Osred II, king of Northumbria (788 - 790 [expelled, tonsured, and exiled])
Osbald, king of Northumbria (796, for 27 days [expelled, fled to Picts])
Eardwulf, king of Northumbria (26 May 796 - ?806 [expelled], 808-10 [restored with help from Charlemagne?])
Ælfwald II, king of Northumbria (?? 806-8)
Eanred, king of Northumbria (?? 810-40)
Æthelred II, king of Northumbria (?? 840-4, 844-8;or ?? 846-50, 850-4)
Rædwald, king of Northumbria (?? 844, or ?? 850)
Osberht, king of Northumbria after Æthelred to 23 March 867 [killed by Vikings at York]
Ælle, usurper king of Northumbria in Osberht's reign to 23 March 867 [killed by Vikings at York]
Erik Bloodaxe, last king of York (?947-8, ?952-4)
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Rulers: Wessex
*Cerdic, legendary founder of Wessex
*Cynric, legendary founder of Wessex
Ceawlin, early ruler of Wessex (?? 581-8 or ?? 560-93)
Ceol, early ruler of Wessex (?? 588-94 or ?? 591-7)
Ceolwulf, early ruler of Wessex (?? 594/7 - 611)
Cynegils, king of Wesseex (611-42) [baptized 635]
Cenwealh, king of Wessex (642-5, 648-72 [gap: in exile from Penda of Mercia])
Seaxburh, Cenwealh's widow and ruler of Wessex (672-4)
Æscwine, king of Wessex (674-6)
Centwine, king of Wessex (676 - ?685)
Cædwalla, king of Wessex (685-88 [resigned, went to Rome]) (died 20 April 689)
Ine, king of Wessex (688-726 [resigned, went to Rome])
Æthelheard, king of Wessex (726-40)
Cuthred, king of Wessex (740-56)
Sigeberht, king of Wessex (756-7)
Cynewulf, king of Wessex (757 - 786 [ambushed by Cyneheard, Sigeberht's brother])
Beorhtric, king of Wessex (786 - 802 [?? accidentally poisoned by his wife])
Ecgberht, king of Wessex (802-39)
Æthelwulf, king of Wessex (839-55 [to Rome], 856-8)
Æthelbald, king of Wessex (855-8 [subking], 858-60) ([858, marries stepmother Judith)
Æthelberht, king of Wessex (855-60 [subking], 860-5)
Æthelred, king of Wessex (865-71)
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Rulers of all the Anglo-Saxons as unification began
Alfred (the Great), king of Wessex and later the Anglo-Saxons (871 - 26 October 899)
Edward the Elder, king of the Anglo-Saxons (899 [cons. 8 June 900] - 17 July 924)
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Rulers of England
Æthelstan, king of England (924 [cons. 4 September 925] - 27 October 939
Edmund, king of England (939 - 26 May 946 [stabbed at Pucklechurch])
Eadred, king of England (946 [cons. 16 August 946] - 23 November 955)
Eadwig All-Fair, king of England (955 [cons. 26 January 956] - 1 October 959) (kingdom divided with Edgar, 957)
Edgar the Peacemaker, king of England (957/9 - 8 July 975)
Edward the Martyr, king of England (975 - 18 March 978 [killed at Corfe by supporters of Æthelred])
Æthelred the Unready, king of England (978 [cons. 4 May 979] - 23 April 1016 [1013-4 exile in Normandy])
Edmund Ironside, Æthelred's son, disputed kingship of England with Cnut (April 1016 - 30 November 1016)
Cnut, king of England (1016 - 12 November 1035)
Harold Harefoot, king of England (1035-7 [jointly with Harthacnut], 1037-40)
Harthacnut, king of England (1035-7 [jointly with Harold], 1040-1, 1041-2 [jointly with Edward the Confessor])
Edward the Confessor, king of England (1042 - 5 January 1066)
Harold Godwinesson, king of England (1066 [cons. 6. January 1066] - 14 October 1066 [Battle of Hastings]) (THE START OF THE NORMAN ERA)
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Archbishops: Canterbury
Augustine, archbishop of Canterbury (597 - 26 May 604x609)
Laurence, archbishop of Canterbury (604x609 - 2 February 619)
Mellitus, archbishop of Canterbury (619 [from London] - 24 April 624)
Justus, archbishop of Canterbury (624 [from Rochester] -10 November 627x631)
Honorius, archbishop of Canterbury (627x631 - 30 September 653)
Deusdedit, archbishop of Canterbury (12/26 March 655-14 July 664)
Wigheard, archbishop-elect of Canterbury (666/7-8 [died in Rome])
Theodore of Tarsus, archbishop of Canterbury (cons. 26 March 668 [arrived 669] - 19 September 690)
Berhtwald, archbishop of Canterbury (1 July 692 [cons. 29 June 693] - 13 January 731)
Tatwine, archbishop of Canterbury (10 June 731 - 30 July 734)
Nothhelm, archbishop of Canterbury (735 - 17 October 739)
Cuthbert, archbishop of Canterbury (740 [? from Hereford] - 26 October 760)
Bregowine, archbishop of Canterbury (27 September 761 - 764)
Jænberht, archbishop of Canterbury (2 February 765 - 12 August 792)
Æthelheard, archbishop of Canterbury (792 [cons. 21 July 793] - 12 May 805)
Wulfred, archbishop of Canterbury ([by 26 July 805] [cons. October 805] - 24 March 832)
Feologild, archbishop of Canterbury (25 April 832 [cons. 9 June 832] - 30 August 832), rival to Swithred?
Swithred, archbishop of Canterbury (832), rival to Feologild?
Ceolnoth, archbishop of Canterbury (833 [cons. ? 27 July 833] - 4 February 870))
Æthelred, archbishop of Canterbury (870 - 30 June 888)
Plegmund, archbishop of Canterbury (890 - 2 August 923)
Æthelhelm, archbishop of Canterbury (923x925 [from Wells] - 8 January 926)
Wulfhelm, archbishop of Canterbury (c.926 [from Wells] - 12 February 941)
Oda, archbishop of Canterbury (941 [from Ramsbury] - 2 June 958)
Ælfsige, archbishop of Canterbury (958 [from Winchester] - 959)
Byrhthelm, archbishop of Canterbury (959 [from Wells] - 959 [deposed for Dunstan; back to Wells])
Dunstan, archbishop of Canterbury (959 - 19 May 988)
Æthelgar, archbishop of Canterbury (988 [from New Minster Winchester & Selsey] - 12/13 February 990)
Sigeric, archbishop of Canterbury (990 [from Ramsbury] - 28 October 994)
Ælfric, archbishop of Canterbury (21 April 995 [from Ramsbury] - 16 November 1005)
Ælfheah, archbishop of Canterbury (21 April 995 [from Ramsbury] - 16 November 1005)
Lyfing, also called Ælfstan, archbishop of Canterbury (1013 [from Wells] - 12 June 1020)
Æthelnoth, archbishop of Canterbury ([cons. 13 November 1020] - [28/29 October/1 November 1038])
Eadsige, archbishop of Canterbury (1038 - 29 October 1050)
Robert of Jumièges, archbishop of Canterbury (March 1051 [from London] - September 1052 [expelled])
Stigand, archbishop of Canterbury (1052 [from Winchester] - 11 April 1070 [deposed])
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Abbots: New Minster, Winchester
Æthelgar, abbot of the New Minster, Winchester (964 - 988 [becomes archbishop of Canterbury])
Ælfsige, abbot of the New Minster, Winchester (988 - 25 August 1007)
Byrhtwold, abbot of the New Minster, Winchester (1007 - 17 March 1012)
Byrhtmær, abbot of the New Minster, Winchester (1012 - 25 December 1030)
Ælfwine, abbot of the New Minster, Winchester (1031 - 24 November 1057)
Ælfnoth, abbot of the New Minster, Winchester (1057 - 9 December ?1063)
Ælfwig, abbot of the New Minster, Winchester (?1063 - ?14 October 1066)
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