A list of some of the many battles that have taken place on British soil over the centuries -
Battle of Barnet during the War of the Roses, 1471
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The Battle of Bannockburn
June 23-24, 1314
Bannockburn, Stirlingshire
Scots under Robert Bruce vs. English under King Edward II
Robert the Bruce had rebelled against the English and was attempting to forge an independant Scotland. He besieged Stirling and extracted a promise of submission if the castle was not relieved by a set time. Edward II hurriedly marched north from England to counter the insurgence and reach Stirling in time. They met at Bannockburn, on the approaches to Stirling.
The Battle
The Scottish force was composed largely of infantry, with few archers and little cavalry. Bruce placed his men between two stretches of uneven and boggy ground, so the English had to attack against a narrow front. This negated the English superiority in numbers, which has been estimated at three to one.
Bruce's tactics worked to perfection. The English cavalry hurled charge after charge against the massed spears of the Scottish front, to little effect. The Scottish cause was aided when a large group of their camp-followers was mistaken by the English for fresh Scottish troops, and the English army broke ranks and fled.
The flight of the English troops was hampered by the boggy ground, and many were cut down by the pursuing Scots. The lack of Scottish cavalry limited pursuit, however.
Results
Bannockburn was the decisive blow in establishing the independence of Scotland from England. Although the English refused to recognise the fact until the treaty of Northampton 14 years later, Bannockburn set the seal on Scotland's bid for freedom. Robert the Bruce is rightly remembered as a national hero for his role in ridding Scotland of the English yoke, at least for a time.
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The Battle of Barnet
April 14, 1471
Barnet, Hertfordshire
Yorkist troops under Edward IV vs. Lancastrian troops led by the Warwick, "The Kingmaker"
Barnet was yet another in a long line of bloody battles we call the Wars of the Roses, staged between the houses of Lancaster and York as they struggled for the crown of England. It owed as much to personal enmity between Warwick and Edward as it did to policies or alliances. Warwick ostensibly fought to return Henry VI to the throne. At the time of the battle, Edward held Henry in the Tower of London.
The Battle
Warwick's men were already in position when Edward's army arrived on the night of April 13. Edward disposed his troops in the dark, intending to repel an expected attack at dawn. In the dark he misjudged the distance between his men and the enemy, and drew up much closer to Warwick than he intended.
It proved to be a fortunate error, for the Lancastrian artillery kept up a constant barrage during the night, but overshot the mark almost completely, so Edward's army was intact when the dawn came.
The cause of the Lancastrian army was dealt a terrible blow by sheer mischance. The thick fog of morning made it impossible to see clearly, and in the half-light Warwick's left and centre mistook the other, first for enemy troops, then for traitors. The damage they did to each other was decisive, for until then the fight had been in Warwick's favour.
Warwick himself was killed on the field, and his forces put to the rout. Casualty figures are unreliable, but it seems likely that 500 Yorkist and 1000 Lancastrians perished.
Results
Barnet marked the end for Richard Neville, "Warwick the Kingmaker", the most powerful baron of his time. For Edward IV, Barnet was just the first act in his desparate attempt to wrest back the throne.
The battle dust had barely settled when news came that Margaret of Anjou, Henry VI's queen, had landed in the west. Only a desperate march by Edward's men prevented her from reaching allies near Wales, and forced her into battle at Tewkesbury.
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The Battle of Bosworth Field
August 22, 1485
Market Bosworth, Leicestershire
Richard III vs. Henry Tudor
Richard III had exiled Henry Tudor, Earl of Richmond. Henry was the recognised head of the Lancastrian cause against Richard's House of York. Henry gathered allies abroad, and, buoyed by Richard's dubious support in England, effected a landing at Milford Haven.
The Battle
Richard had every reason to believe that he had sufficient manpower to deal with Henry's army. He was wrong. Richard's left wing, under Northumberland, refused to fight. Lord Stanley's men were pledged to Richard's cause, but Stanley had secretely agreed to support Henry. When the decisive moment in the battle came, Stanley's men joined in on Henry Tudor's side and Richard's fate was sealed.
Whatever else has been said of him (most of it negative propaganda by later Tudor "historians") no one can accuse Richard III of cowardice. He fought bravely to the end, and was eventually killed on the field, deserted by his friends and allies. Tradition tells that the crown of England was found upon a bush after the battle, and Henry Tudor placed it upon his own head.
Results
Bosworth Field was the penultimate act of the interminable Wars of the Roses. A minor skirmish two years later at Stoke was a feeble last gesture of defiance from the defeated Yorkists. Henry Tudor became Henry VII, first of the Tudor dynasty, and a new era began in English history.
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The Battle of Edgehill
October 23, 1642
Edgehill, Warwickshire
Parliamentary troops under the Earl of Essex vs. royal troops under the Earl of Forth
Charles I believed strongly in the rights of the monarch to rule as he saw fit - including raising money for his wars or for whatever reason he saw fit. Parliament, on the other hand, believed equally strongly in their right to approve or deny funds to the crown as they saw fit.
Simplistically put, this is the reason for the outbreak of the conflict we know as the English Civil War. The Battle of Edgehill was the first major armed conflict of that war.
The Battle
King Charles marched from Shrewsbury toward London with his newly raised army. Essex marched out to meet him, with the express task of making sure the king did not reach the capitol. They met near Edgehill, a few miles from Banbury.
The two armies were of approximately the same size; about 14,500 men. The Royal cavalry under Prince Rupert and Lord Wilmot pushed back the wings of the Parliamentary army, but in the centre the royal troops were themselves badly mauled.
After only three hours of hard fighting neither side was able to make headway, and they broke off the fight as darkness descended. Essex considered his army too badly pulled damaged to resume the fight next day, and he pulled back his men to Warwick, leaving the road to London open to Charles' army.
The Result
Although neither side at Edgehill could claim a decisive victory, the result was that Charles "won" in so far as the road to London was now open to him. However, Charles did not take advantage of his opportunity.
His natural caution asserted itself, and by the time his troops reached Reading, Essex had regained London and a fresh force of men prevented any further royalist advance. Charles never again had so clear an opportunity to take London as he did after Edgehill.
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The Battle of Edington
May, 878 AD
Ethandun (Edington), near Trowbridge, Wiltshire
Danes under Guthrum vs. Saxons under King Alfred of Wessex
In the late 9th century the Danes had slowly but surely infiltrated the British Isles and pushed back the Anglo-Saxon inhabitants. They already held the north and east of the country. A temporary defeat at Ashdown had interupted, but not stopped, the Danish advances. Under Guthrum, they pushed into Wessex from the south and east. They launched a winter attack on a surprised King Alfred at his court of Chippenham.
Alfred's court fled, and he was forced to take refuge in the marshes of Athelney, in Somerset. There, with a few of his supporters, he held out through the winter. When Spring came, Alfred sent out a call to his fyrd, or army, to assemble at an unknown place called Egbert's Stone. From there they marched in force to Edington, where Alfred challenged Guthrun to do battle.
The Battle
Alfred's fyrd used a tactic familiar to the Roman infantry, called a shield wall. Shields were placed side by side, creating a solid wall. Spears were thrust through small openings in the shield wall. In a fierce battle that lasted all day, Alfred's men wore down the Danes. He chased the Danes back to Chippenham, and trapped them within his own fortress there. After 14 days of starvation the Danes sued for peace.
Alfred was a realist; he realised that he could never hope to drive the Danes out of the rest of England. The best he could hope for was to consolidate his current posessions. By the terms of the peace agreement, known as the Peace of Wedmore, Guthrun agreed to withdraw to territory already under Danish control, that is, behind the Roman Watling Street. In addition, he and his captains were baptised into Christianity.
Results
The short term result of the victory at Edington was the withdrawal of Guthrun and his Danish forces to the area we now call The Danelaw. There, Danish law and custom applied.
As for Alfred, he knew only too well that his victory would be meaningless unless he followed it up with measures to strengthen the area under his control. The solution he evolved was the encouragement of burhs, or fortified towns. Alfred encouraged settlement of these towns, which acted as a string of border fortresses, armed and held at the ready against possible Danish incursions.
This system did much to stabilize the political situation and bring a measure of peace to the ravaged islands.
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The Battle of Hastings
October 14, 1066
Battle, East Sussex
Saxons under Harold, King of England vs. Norman French under Duke William of Normandy
When Edward the Confessor died he left no direct heir, and the throne of England passed to Harold. However, William of Normandy claimed that Edward had promised the crown to him, and indeed that Harold himself had sworn a sacred oath to relinquish his claim in William's favour.
William prepared an invasion fleet and, armed with a papal bull declaring his right to the throne, he crossed the English Channel to land near Pevensey.
Harold, in the meantime, had another threat to concern him; his brother Tostig allied with Harald Hardrada of Norway and landed in the north of England. They took York, but Harold defeated them soundly at the Battle of Stamford Bridge.
No sooner had the battle dust settled than Harold received news of William's invasion in the south. He marched his tired men from York to Sussex, arriving there on October 13 to face the Normans.
The Battle
Harold took up a defensive position on a high ridge known as Senlac. The battle began with devastating volleys of stone missiles hurled into the Norman infantry by the Saxon "fyrd", or irregular troops levied from the shires.
William himself led the centre of the Norman army, and it is said that he carried into battle some of the holy relics upon which Harold had sworn to cede the crown to him.
The Norman infantry made no dent in the Saxon lines, and the cavalry fared no better. But when some of the Norman horsemen turned and fled, a large group of Saxons left their position to chase them. It was a fatal mistake, as William rallied his men and routed the unprotected attackers. The Saxon lines quickly closed, but they had not learned their lesson, and they repeated the same folly of chasing an apparently fleeing enemy twice more as the day wore on.
By late afternoon the Saxon lines were wavering under continued Norman attacks. It is then that the most famous arrow in English history was released by an anonymous Norman archer.
The arrow took King Harold in the eye, and a final Norman onslaught killed him where he stood. The rest of the leaderless Saxons ceded Senlac ridge yard by grudging yard, but eventually they had no choice but to turn and flee the field. The day belonged to Duke William, soon to be dubbed, "the Conqueror". The body of King Harold was eventually buried in Waltham Abbey.
The Results
Although there were sporadic outbreaks of Saxon resistance to Norman rule after the Battle of Hastings - notably in East Anglia under Hereward the Wake, and in the north of England - from this point on England was effectively ruled by the Normans.
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The Battle of Maldon
mid-August, 991
Maldon, Essex
Saxons led by Earl Byrhtnoth vs. Vikings under Olaf Tryggvasson
Viking raiders had made frequent raids in search of plunder on the coast of Britain since the 5th century or earlier. In the late 10th century these raids became more cohesive - and more difficult to oppose. In mid August of 991 a force under the leadership of Olaf Tryggvasson descended upon the coast of Essex. Olaf's men appear to have been far more organized than the usual motley collection of raiders, and the entire force may have numbered as many as 3,000 men. In charge of the native defenses was the ealdorman Byrhtnoth, the leading representative of King Aethelred in that region.
The Battle
The Vikings landed on Northey Island, which was linked to the mainland by a low causeway. The causeway was flooded at high tide, and while the Vikings waited for the tide to recede, Byrhtnoth hastily drew together a force of local militia. The Vikings shouted their demands for tribute, but Byrhtnoth refused, and prepared his men for battle at the south end of the causeway.
As the water receded the Vikings advanced, but three of Byrhtnoth's men were able to hold the narrow causeway against them. The Vikings withdrew, and asked to be allowed to pass unhindered to dry ground so that they could continue the fight on a fair basis. Though Byrhtnoth was in a virtually unassailable position, he agreed to let the Vikings access the mainland. Though chivalrous, Byrhtnoth's move was foolhardy in the extreme.
When the Vikings had gained firm ground the battle was re-engaged. The fighting was fierce, but the issue was decided when Byrhtnoth himself was slain. His supporters fled the field, all but a group of his thegns who elected to die in battle in a vain but heroic attempt to avenge their lost leader.
The Results
In the aftermath of the Battle of Maldon the Vikings exacted tribute from local leaders in Hampshire, Kent, and the west of present-day England. Aethelred was forced to give them 5 tons of silver, paid for by a special tax which came to known as danegeld. Laden with their gains, the Vikings withdrew, promising to keep the peace and oppose any other Viking force threatening Britain.
It is doubtful that they ever intended to abide by the terms of their treaty, and sure enough, within a few years the Vikings were back.
It could be argued that the Battle of Maldon had no lasting effect. It did, however, leave an indelible image on the English imagination, fostered by an epic poem about the battle written by an unknown Anglo-Saxon poet. The poem, of which only fragments remain, tells the tale of Byrhtnoth in stirring detail, and it is through this poem that most of what we know about the battle has been preserved.
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The Battle of Marston Moor
July 2, 1644
Long Marston, Yorkshire
Royalist troops under the Marquess of Newcastle and Prince Rupert vs. an allied army of Parliamentary and Scottish troops led by Sir Thomas Fairfax and Lord Manchester
The Civil War was going badly for Royalist forces in the north of England. The Marquess of Newcastle was forced to fall back on the fortified city of York, where he was besieged by Parliamentary armies under Sir Thomas Fairfax.
Prince Rupert led a relief force of perhaps 7000 cavalry and as many footsoldiers north to the relief of the city.
Fairfax broke off the siege and marched his men south to prevent Rupert from reaching the approaches to York. The ever-daring Rupert surprised the Parliamentary generals by marching around their position and reaching the city anyway.
The Battle
Never one to pull back from a fight, Rupert now ordered his tired men out from York to surprise the enemy. They met a numerically superior force numbering perhaps 27,000 men.
By the time the armies were in position it was late in the day, and Rupert, convinced that his foe would not attack until the morning, left the field in search of his supper. Lord Newcastle, perhaps more reprehensibly, retired to his coach for a quiet smoke.
The Parliamentary army surprised the royalist totally by an attack which must have begun just as dusk was falling at 7pm. The fierce fighting lasted for several hours, eerily illuminated by a harvest moon. The royalist cavalry under the returned Rupert was ousted after fierce fighting, but it was the infantry that won the day (or night, in this case).
The Result
The Royalists lost as many as 3000 men, plus their artillery train. York was forced to surrender to Parliament and the north of England was effectively lost to the king.
Prince Rupert lost his glowing reputation of invincibility in battle, but Marston Moor made the reputation of another man; Oliver Cromwell made a name for himself for his role in defeating the Royalist cavalry
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The Battle of Stalling Down
1405
Stalling Down, Cowbridge, Glamorgan (the site was also known as 'Bryn Owen' (Owens Hill).
Welsh and French under Owain Glyndwr VS English under Henry IV
Owain Glyndwr (variously called Glendower,, Glyn Dwr, and Owain ap Gruffydd) was a noble Welshman and a descendent of Llewelyn the Last. For most of his life he lived - and fought - as an Englishman, but by 1400 his growing sense of Welsh patriotic pride - and a squabble over land with his English neighbour - led him to raise an insuurection against the English in Wales.
In September, 1400 Glyndwr was proclaimed Prince of Wales. That same day he attacked Ruthin Castle, followed by raids on a succession of English strongholds in Wales. Initially the Welsh flocked to his banner, and Glyndwr successfully pushed back the startled English, aided by a few disaffected English lords. He briefly established a Welsh Parliament at Machynlleth. He also terrified some of his followers with his ferocity and disrtegard for the niceties of chivalry.
In 1405 Henry IV led a force of English troops into Glamorgan in a fresh attempt to overcome Glyndwr. The English met the Welsh and their French allies near Cowbridge, in a low field now called Stalling Down.
The Battle
In a ferocious battle that lasted for fully 18 hours, the English and Welsh cut each other to bloody shreds. Though actual details of the battle are scarce, legend tells that the blood ran fetlock high on the horse's legs, so fierce was the fighting. In the end, the Welsh were triumphant and Henry was forced to retreat.
The Results
Despite Glyndwr's triumph, the English superiority in numbers - and persistance - wore down Welsh resistance in the end. Glyndwr and his men were pushed back to Harlech Castle, and when that stronghold fell, the Welsh cause was effectively lost. Glyndwr's wife and children were captured and spent the rest of their lives imprisoned in London.
As for Glyndwr himself, a great mystery lurks around his fate. He lived the life of a fugitive for several years, and it is known that in 1415 he refused a pardon, but then he disappears from history. Rumours abounded that he did not die, but sleeps, waiting to return when his country is at greatest need.
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The Battle of Prestonpans
September 21, 1745
Prestonpans, Lothian, Scotland
Jacobite Scots under Prince Charles Stuart (Bonnie Prince Charlie) vs. British troops under General Cope
Charles returned from exile in France to launch yet another Jacobite attempt to seize the English throne. The response to his landing was lukewarm among the Scots, despite the Prince's belief in popular support for his cause.
Prince Charles gathered what troops he could at Glenfinnan and marched south to take Edinburgh. General Cope acted immediately with his own small force of untested British troops. Both sides took to the field with roughly 2500 men.
The Battle
General Cope established a protected position with a large marsh between him and the Jacobites. The Jacobite council of war quarreled over what course to take (this bickering was to beset the entire campaign), and Lord George Murray initiated action without informing the Prince or his other advisors.
A local man led the advancing Jacobites through the marsh via a winding track, and they charged through the morning mist at the British line.
The British dragoons refused to obey orders to charge, and a single volley from the advancing Highlanders put them to flight. The infantry took the brunt of the Jacobite attack, and they crumpled before the fierce charge of Murray's men.
The Results
Although the actual loss of life at Prestonpans was comparatively slight - about 300 British troops - over 1000 men and 80 officers were captured. To their credit, the Jacobites ordered that the British wounded receive the best medical care available.
The success at Prestonpans was a terrific morale-booster for the Stuart cause, and more recruits flocked to the Jacobite standard. For the moment at least, the situation looked bright for Bonnie Prince Charlie.
britainexpress.com
Battle of Barnet during the War of the Roses, 1471
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The Battle of Bannockburn
June 23-24, 1314
Bannockburn, Stirlingshire
Scots under Robert Bruce vs. English under King Edward II
Robert the Bruce had rebelled against the English and was attempting to forge an independant Scotland. He besieged Stirling and extracted a promise of submission if the castle was not relieved by a set time. Edward II hurriedly marched north from England to counter the insurgence and reach Stirling in time. They met at Bannockburn, on the approaches to Stirling.
The Battle
The Scottish force was composed largely of infantry, with few archers and little cavalry. Bruce placed his men between two stretches of uneven and boggy ground, so the English had to attack against a narrow front. This negated the English superiority in numbers, which has been estimated at three to one.
Bruce's tactics worked to perfection. The English cavalry hurled charge after charge against the massed spears of the Scottish front, to little effect. The Scottish cause was aided when a large group of their camp-followers was mistaken by the English for fresh Scottish troops, and the English army broke ranks and fled.
The flight of the English troops was hampered by the boggy ground, and many were cut down by the pursuing Scots. The lack of Scottish cavalry limited pursuit, however.
Results
Bannockburn was the decisive blow in establishing the independence of Scotland from England. Although the English refused to recognise the fact until the treaty of Northampton 14 years later, Bannockburn set the seal on Scotland's bid for freedom. Robert the Bruce is rightly remembered as a national hero for his role in ridding Scotland of the English yoke, at least for a time.
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The Battle of Barnet
April 14, 1471
Barnet, Hertfordshire
Yorkist troops under Edward IV vs. Lancastrian troops led by the Warwick, "The Kingmaker"
Barnet was yet another in a long line of bloody battles we call the Wars of the Roses, staged between the houses of Lancaster and York as they struggled for the crown of England. It owed as much to personal enmity between Warwick and Edward as it did to policies or alliances. Warwick ostensibly fought to return Henry VI to the throne. At the time of the battle, Edward held Henry in the Tower of London.
The Battle
Warwick's men were already in position when Edward's army arrived on the night of April 13. Edward disposed his troops in the dark, intending to repel an expected attack at dawn. In the dark he misjudged the distance between his men and the enemy, and drew up much closer to Warwick than he intended.
It proved to be a fortunate error, for the Lancastrian artillery kept up a constant barrage during the night, but overshot the mark almost completely, so Edward's army was intact when the dawn came.
The cause of the Lancastrian army was dealt a terrible blow by sheer mischance. The thick fog of morning made it impossible to see clearly, and in the half-light Warwick's left and centre mistook the other, first for enemy troops, then for traitors. The damage they did to each other was decisive, for until then the fight had been in Warwick's favour.
Warwick himself was killed on the field, and his forces put to the rout. Casualty figures are unreliable, but it seems likely that 500 Yorkist and 1000 Lancastrians perished.
Results
Barnet marked the end for Richard Neville, "Warwick the Kingmaker", the most powerful baron of his time. For Edward IV, Barnet was just the first act in his desparate attempt to wrest back the throne.
The battle dust had barely settled when news came that Margaret of Anjou, Henry VI's queen, had landed in the west. Only a desperate march by Edward's men prevented her from reaching allies near Wales, and forced her into battle at Tewkesbury.
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The Battle of Bosworth Field
August 22, 1485
Market Bosworth, Leicestershire
Richard III vs. Henry Tudor
Richard III had exiled Henry Tudor, Earl of Richmond. Henry was the recognised head of the Lancastrian cause against Richard's House of York. Henry gathered allies abroad, and, buoyed by Richard's dubious support in England, effected a landing at Milford Haven.
The Battle
Richard had every reason to believe that he had sufficient manpower to deal with Henry's army. He was wrong. Richard's left wing, under Northumberland, refused to fight. Lord Stanley's men were pledged to Richard's cause, but Stanley had secretely agreed to support Henry. When the decisive moment in the battle came, Stanley's men joined in on Henry Tudor's side and Richard's fate was sealed.
Whatever else has been said of him (most of it negative propaganda by later Tudor "historians") no one can accuse Richard III of cowardice. He fought bravely to the end, and was eventually killed on the field, deserted by his friends and allies. Tradition tells that the crown of England was found upon a bush after the battle, and Henry Tudor placed it upon his own head.
Results
Bosworth Field was the penultimate act of the interminable Wars of the Roses. A minor skirmish two years later at Stoke was a feeble last gesture of defiance from the defeated Yorkists. Henry Tudor became Henry VII, first of the Tudor dynasty, and a new era began in English history.
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The Battle of Edgehill
October 23, 1642
Edgehill, Warwickshire
Parliamentary troops under the Earl of Essex vs. royal troops under the Earl of Forth
Charles I believed strongly in the rights of the monarch to rule as he saw fit - including raising money for his wars or for whatever reason he saw fit. Parliament, on the other hand, believed equally strongly in their right to approve or deny funds to the crown as they saw fit.
Simplistically put, this is the reason for the outbreak of the conflict we know as the English Civil War. The Battle of Edgehill was the first major armed conflict of that war.
The Battle
King Charles marched from Shrewsbury toward London with his newly raised army. Essex marched out to meet him, with the express task of making sure the king did not reach the capitol. They met near Edgehill, a few miles from Banbury.
The two armies were of approximately the same size; about 14,500 men. The Royal cavalry under Prince Rupert and Lord Wilmot pushed back the wings of the Parliamentary army, but in the centre the royal troops were themselves badly mauled.
After only three hours of hard fighting neither side was able to make headway, and they broke off the fight as darkness descended. Essex considered his army too badly pulled damaged to resume the fight next day, and he pulled back his men to Warwick, leaving the road to London open to Charles' army.
The Result
Although neither side at Edgehill could claim a decisive victory, the result was that Charles "won" in so far as the road to London was now open to him. However, Charles did not take advantage of his opportunity.
His natural caution asserted itself, and by the time his troops reached Reading, Essex had regained London and a fresh force of men prevented any further royalist advance. Charles never again had so clear an opportunity to take London as he did after Edgehill.
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The Battle of Edington
May, 878 AD
Ethandun (Edington), near Trowbridge, Wiltshire
Danes under Guthrum vs. Saxons under King Alfred of Wessex
In the late 9th century the Danes had slowly but surely infiltrated the British Isles and pushed back the Anglo-Saxon inhabitants. They already held the north and east of the country. A temporary defeat at Ashdown had interupted, but not stopped, the Danish advances. Under Guthrum, they pushed into Wessex from the south and east. They launched a winter attack on a surprised King Alfred at his court of Chippenham.
Alfred's court fled, and he was forced to take refuge in the marshes of Athelney, in Somerset. There, with a few of his supporters, he held out through the winter. When Spring came, Alfred sent out a call to his fyrd, or army, to assemble at an unknown place called Egbert's Stone. From there they marched in force to Edington, where Alfred challenged Guthrun to do battle.
The Battle
Alfred's fyrd used a tactic familiar to the Roman infantry, called a shield wall. Shields were placed side by side, creating a solid wall. Spears were thrust through small openings in the shield wall. In a fierce battle that lasted all day, Alfred's men wore down the Danes. He chased the Danes back to Chippenham, and trapped them within his own fortress there. After 14 days of starvation the Danes sued for peace.
Alfred was a realist; he realised that he could never hope to drive the Danes out of the rest of England. The best he could hope for was to consolidate his current posessions. By the terms of the peace agreement, known as the Peace of Wedmore, Guthrun agreed to withdraw to territory already under Danish control, that is, behind the Roman Watling Street. In addition, he and his captains were baptised into Christianity.
Results
The short term result of the victory at Edington was the withdrawal of Guthrun and his Danish forces to the area we now call The Danelaw. There, Danish law and custom applied.
As for Alfred, he knew only too well that his victory would be meaningless unless he followed it up with measures to strengthen the area under his control. The solution he evolved was the encouragement of burhs, or fortified towns. Alfred encouraged settlement of these towns, which acted as a string of border fortresses, armed and held at the ready against possible Danish incursions.
This system did much to stabilize the political situation and bring a measure of peace to the ravaged islands.
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The Battle of Hastings
October 14, 1066
Battle, East Sussex
Saxons under Harold, King of England vs. Norman French under Duke William of Normandy
When Edward the Confessor died he left no direct heir, and the throne of England passed to Harold. However, William of Normandy claimed that Edward had promised the crown to him, and indeed that Harold himself had sworn a sacred oath to relinquish his claim in William's favour.
William prepared an invasion fleet and, armed with a papal bull declaring his right to the throne, he crossed the English Channel to land near Pevensey.
Harold, in the meantime, had another threat to concern him; his brother Tostig allied with Harald Hardrada of Norway and landed in the north of England. They took York, but Harold defeated them soundly at the Battle of Stamford Bridge.
No sooner had the battle dust settled than Harold received news of William's invasion in the south. He marched his tired men from York to Sussex, arriving there on October 13 to face the Normans.
The Battle
Harold took up a defensive position on a high ridge known as Senlac. The battle began with devastating volleys of stone missiles hurled into the Norman infantry by the Saxon "fyrd", or irregular troops levied from the shires.
William himself led the centre of the Norman army, and it is said that he carried into battle some of the holy relics upon which Harold had sworn to cede the crown to him.
The Norman infantry made no dent in the Saxon lines, and the cavalry fared no better. But when some of the Norman horsemen turned and fled, a large group of Saxons left their position to chase them. It was a fatal mistake, as William rallied his men and routed the unprotected attackers. The Saxon lines quickly closed, but they had not learned their lesson, and they repeated the same folly of chasing an apparently fleeing enemy twice more as the day wore on.
By late afternoon the Saxon lines were wavering under continued Norman attacks. It is then that the most famous arrow in English history was released by an anonymous Norman archer.
The arrow took King Harold in the eye, and a final Norman onslaught killed him where he stood. The rest of the leaderless Saxons ceded Senlac ridge yard by grudging yard, but eventually they had no choice but to turn and flee the field. The day belonged to Duke William, soon to be dubbed, "the Conqueror". The body of King Harold was eventually buried in Waltham Abbey.
The Results
Although there were sporadic outbreaks of Saxon resistance to Norman rule after the Battle of Hastings - notably in East Anglia under Hereward the Wake, and in the north of England - from this point on England was effectively ruled by the Normans.
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The Battle of Maldon
mid-August, 991
Maldon, Essex
Saxons led by Earl Byrhtnoth vs. Vikings under Olaf Tryggvasson
Viking raiders had made frequent raids in search of plunder on the coast of Britain since the 5th century or earlier. In the late 10th century these raids became more cohesive - and more difficult to oppose. In mid August of 991 a force under the leadership of Olaf Tryggvasson descended upon the coast of Essex. Olaf's men appear to have been far more organized than the usual motley collection of raiders, and the entire force may have numbered as many as 3,000 men. In charge of the native defenses was the ealdorman Byrhtnoth, the leading representative of King Aethelred in that region.
The Battle
The Vikings landed on Northey Island, which was linked to the mainland by a low causeway. The causeway was flooded at high tide, and while the Vikings waited for the tide to recede, Byrhtnoth hastily drew together a force of local militia. The Vikings shouted their demands for tribute, but Byrhtnoth refused, and prepared his men for battle at the south end of the causeway.
As the water receded the Vikings advanced, but three of Byrhtnoth's men were able to hold the narrow causeway against them. The Vikings withdrew, and asked to be allowed to pass unhindered to dry ground so that they could continue the fight on a fair basis. Though Byrhtnoth was in a virtually unassailable position, he agreed to let the Vikings access the mainland. Though chivalrous, Byrhtnoth's move was foolhardy in the extreme.
When the Vikings had gained firm ground the battle was re-engaged. The fighting was fierce, but the issue was decided when Byrhtnoth himself was slain. His supporters fled the field, all but a group of his thegns who elected to die in battle in a vain but heroic attempt to avenge their lost leader.
The Results
In the aftermath of the Battle of Maldon the Vikings exacted tribute from local leaders in Hampshire, Kent, and the west of present-day England. Aethelred was forced to give them 5 tons of silver, paid for by a special tax which came to known as danegeld. Laden with their gains, the Vikings withdrew, promising to keep the peace and oppose any other Viking force threatening Britain.
It is doubtful that they ever intended to abide by the terms of their treaty, and sure enough, within a few years the Vikings were back.
It could be argued that the Battle of Maldon had no lasting effect. It did, however, leave an indelible image on the English imagination, fostered by an epic poem about the battle written by an unknown Anglo-Saxon poet. The poem, of which only fragments remain, tells the tale of Byrhtnoth in stirring detail, and it is through this poem that most of what we know about the battle has been preserved.
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The Battle of Marston Moor
July 2, 1644
Long Marston, Yorkshire
Royalist troops under the Marquess of Newcastle and Prince Rupert vs. an allied army of Parliamentary and Scottish troops led by Sir Thomas Fairfax and Lord Manchester
The Civil War was going badly for Royalist forces in the north of England. The Marquess of Newcastle was forced to fall back on the fortified city of York, where he was besieged by Parliamentary armies under Sir Thomas Fairfax.
Prince Rupert led a relief force of perhaps 7000 cavalry and as many footsoldiers north to the relief of the city.
Fairfax broke off the siege and marched his men south to prevent Rupert from reaching the approaches to York. The ever-daring Rupert surprised the Parliamentary generals by marching around their position and reaching the city anyway.
The Battle
Never one to pull back from a fight, Rupert now ordered his tired men out from York to surprise the enemy. They met a numerically superior force numbering perhaps 27,000 men.
By the time the armies were in position it was late in the day, and Rupert, convinced that his foe would not attack until the morning, left the field in search of his supper. Lord Newcastle, perhaps more reprehensibly, retired to his coach for a quiet smoke.
The Parliamentary army surprised the royalist totally by an attack which must have begun just as dusk was falling at 7pm. The fierce fighting lasted for several hours, eerily illuminated by a harvest moon. The royalist cavalry under the returned Rupert was ousted after fierce fighting, but it was the infantry that won the day (or night, in this case).
The Result
The Royalists lost as many as 3000 men, plus their artillery train. York was forced to surrender to Parliament and the north of England was effectively lost to the king.
Prince Rupert lost his glowing reputation of invincibility in battle, but Marston Moor made the reputation of another man; Oliver Cromwell made a name for himself for his role in defeating the Royalist cavalry
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The Battle of Stalling Down
1405
Stalling Down, Cowbridge, Glamorgan (the site was also known as 'Bryn Owen' (Owens Hill).
Welsh and French under Owain Glyndwr VS English under Henry IV
Owain Glyndwr (variously called Glendower,, Glyn Dwr, and Owain ap Gruffydd) was a noble Welshman and a descendent of Llewelyn the Last. For most of his life he lived - and fought - as an Englishman, but by 1400 his growing sense of Welsh patriotic pride - and a squabble over land with his English neighbour - led him to raise an insuurection against the English in Wales.
In September, 1400 Glyndwr was proclaimed Prince of Wales. That same day he attacked Ruthin Castle, followed by raids on a succession of English strongholds in Wales. Initially the Welsh flocked to his banner, and Glyndwr successfully pushed back the startled English, aided by a few disaffected English lords. He briefly established a Welsh Parliament at Machynlleth. He also terrified some of his followers with his ferocity and disrtegard for the niceties of chivalry.
In 1405 Henry IV led a force of English troops into Glamorgan in a fresh attempt to overcome Glyndwr. The English met the Welsh and their French allies near Cowbridge, in a low field now called Stalling Down.
The Battle
In a ferocious battle that lasted for fully 18 hours, the English and Welsh cut each other to bloody shreds. Though actual details of the battle are scarce, legend tells that the blood ran fetlock high on the horse's legs, so fierce was the fighting. In the end, the Welsh were triumphant and Henry was forced to retreat.
The Results
Despite Glyndwr's triumph, the English superiority in numbers - and persistance - wore down Welsh resistance in the end. Glyndwr and his men were pushed back to Harlech Castle, and when that stronghold fell, the Welsh cause was effectively lost. Glyndwr's wife and children were captured and spent the rest of their lives imprisoned in London.
As for Glyndwr himself, a great mystery lurks around his fate. He lived the life of a fugitive for several years, and it is known that in 1415 he refused a pardon, but then he disappears from history. Rumours abounded that he did not die, but sleeps, waiting to return when his country is at greatest need.
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The Battle of Prestonpans
September 21, 1745
Prestonpans, Lothian, Scotland
Jacobite Scots under Prince Charles Stuart (Bonnie Prince Charlie) vs. British troops under General Cope
Charles returned from exile in France to launch yet another Jacobite attempt to seize the English throne. The response to his landing was lukewarm among the Scots, despite the Prince's belief in popular support for his cause.
Prince Charles gathered what troops he could at Glenfinnan and marched south to take Edinburgh. General Cope acted immediately with his own small force of untested British troops. Both sides took to the field with roughly 2500 men.
The Battle
General Cope established a protected position with a large marsh between him and the Jacobites. The Jacobite council of war quarreled over what course to take (this bickering was to beset the entire campaign), and Lord George Murray initiated action without informing the Prince or his other advisors.
A local man led the advancing Jacobites through the marsh via a winding track, and they charged through the morning mist at the British line.
The British dragoons refused to obey orders to charge, and a single volley from the advancing Highlanders put them to flight. The infantry took the brunt of the Jacobite attack, and they crumpled before the fierce charge of Murray's men.
The Results
Although the actual loss of life at Prestonpans was comparatively slight - about 300 British troops - over 1000 men and 80 officers were captured. To their credit, the Jacobites ordered that the British wounded receive the best medical care available.
The success at Prestonpans was a terrific morale-booster for the Stuart cause, and more recruits flocked to the Jacobite standard. For the moment at least, the situation looked bright for Bonnie Prince Charlie.
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